Paige Lewis

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Wiki Entry #1: Grace Hopper

Grace Murray Hopper was born on December 9, 1906 in New York, New York. She graduated from Vassar receiving a B.A. in mathematics, and continued on to receive a M.A. and a Ph.D. while working under Oystein Ore at Yale (1). Receiving a doctorate was a rare thing for women during this time period, so it was a large accomplishment for her. She married Vincent Foster Hopper in 1930, and went back to Vassar in 1931 to teach mathematics (1). She joined the Navy WAVES in December of 1943, and by 1944 she was commissioned a lieutenant and was assigned to the Ordnance Computation Project at Harvard (1). While working with the Ordnance Computation Project, she worked in Harvard’s Cruft Laboratories and began her work on Howard H. Aiken’s electromechanical Mark I computing machine (2).

Hopper began her work on Mark I and was the third person to have worked on the computing machine. She created a 500-page Manual of Operations for the Automatic Sequence-Controlled Calculator that was used to show the fundamental operating principles for computing machines (1). Hopper also moved on to work on Mark II and Mark III, in which she received the Naval Ordnance Development Award in 1946 (3). During her work on Mark II, Hopper is credited with using the words “bug” in reference to a problem in the computer system, and “debug” is reference to removing the problem from the computer system (3).

After her work with the Mark series, she decided to stay at Harvard and work as a research fellow. In 1949, she joined the Eckert-Mauchly Computer Corporation. The company introduced the BINAC, and eventually UNIVAC I and II, which Hopper was then able to work on programming (3). The company was bought by Remington Rand in 1950, and then merged with Sperry Corporation. While working here she began her development of the A-0, which was the first compiler that translated symbolic mathematical code into machine code (3). She then moved to develop the B-0 compiler, which was also known as the FLOW-MATIC. Hopper and her staff used the FLOW-MATIC to make the UNIVAC I and II understand twenty different commands in English (2). By 1952, she had written and published her first compiler paper.

Her work with the FLOW-MATIC made her realize that there needed to be a standardized computer language. Hopper and her team worked to create standard manuals and tools for their new programming language, COBOL. Hopper retired from the Navy in 1966, but seven months later was recalled from retirement to help develop a working payroll plan (3). During this time, she tried to standardize COBOL and to persuade the Navy to begin using it (2). She led the Navy to develop procedures and programs that validated COBOL compliers (2). It was her work on compilers that impacted the world of computing in such a great way.

In 1983, Grace Hopper was promoted to Commodore by Presidential appointment, and in 1985 was the first women to be promoted to the rank of Rear Admiral. Over the course of her life and work, she had received many awards. She received the Science Man-of-the-Year Award in 1969, and was the first women and first person from the United States to be made a Distinguished Fellow of the British Computer Society in 1973 (3). Sperry Corporation also has an annual award in her name for young computer professionals (2). No matter what awards she won throughout her lifetime, she thought that her greatest contribution was that of her service to her country and to those who she had trained and taught over the years. Grace Hopper died in Arlington, Virginia on January 1, 1992 (1).

Grace Hopper was important to the world of computing and computers in so many different ways. She was one of the first software engineers, and her pioneering work on the first compliers helped to pave the way for the future of computing. Her work with the first compilers helped to make computers more user-friendly because they made computing programs that were able to understand English, making them available to use for those the average person. She helped to develop programming applications for the Mark series, as well as for the UNIVAC. One of her biggest contributions was through her development and standardization of compilers. This translated symbolic mathematical code into machine code, making English commands understandable. This impacted the entire future of development of standardized computer language. She was also an excellent teacher, impacting the world of computing because she could teach her skills and programs that she was creating to other people. Due to her speaking and teaching abilities, as well as her contributions in the development of technology, Grace Hopper left a permanent impact on the world of computing.


Works Cited:

"Grace Murray Hopper: Pioneer Computer Scientist." Grace Murray Hopper: Pioneer Computer Scientist. Web. 24 May 2012. <http://www.sdsc.edu/ScienceWomen/hopper.html>. (1)

"Grace Murray Hopper." Grace Murray Hopper. Web. 24 May 2012. <http://cs-www.cs.yale.edu/homes/tap/Files/hopper-story.html>. (2)

"Grace Murray Hopper." Grace Murray Hopper. Web. 25 May 2012. <http://www.agnesscott.edu/lriddle/women/hopper.htm>. (3)


Wiki Entry # 2: Hewlett-Packard

Hewlett-Packard Company was founded in 1939 by Bill Hewlett and Dave Packard. Bill Hewlett and Dave Packard attended Stanford University together and graduated as electrical engineers. Their friendship began during a camping trip (1). Together, they started doing part time work in a rented garage in Palo Alto, California in 1939. They started with nothing but $538 in cash and a used drill press (1). Hewlett-Packard expanded from this rented garage to move on and operate in more than 170 countries, become the world’s largest IT company, have revenue totaling in $127.2 billion for fiscal 2011, and to rank number 11 on the 2011 Fortune 500 ranking (1). Meg Whitman is now the current CEO and President, and the company is divided into three business groups: the Personal Systems Group, the Imaging and Printing Group, and the Enterprise Business.

The first product invented by the Hewlett-Packard Company was the resistance-capacitance audio oscillator, the HP Model 200A. It was used to test sound equipment (1). HP then moved to enter the microwave field with the HP audio signal generator in 1940. In 1951, HP invented the 524A high-speed frequency counter that reduced the time that was required to measure high frequencies (1). In 1957, HP moved its manufacturing to the Stanford Industrial Park in Palo Alto. F. L. Mosley Company, which was a producer of high-quality graphics, began the foundation of HP’s printing company (1). The first places HP spread globally to were Switzerland and Germany, in which they began a marketing organization and a manufacturing plant (1). On March 17, 1961, HP was listed first on the New York Stock Exchange (1). Hewlett-Packard also began producing medical equipment in 1961. In 1966, the first oscilloscopes by HP were produced. These accounted for a large part of HP’s test and measurement product line (1). HP created its first computer, the HP 2116A, in 1966, and it was designed it to withstand any environmental occurrences (1). HP also invented the world’s first desktop scientific computer in 1968. The HP 9100A was about ten times as fast at solving scientific and mathematical problems than other machines during this time (1). In 1972, they created a small calculator, called the HP-35, which was the first hand held calculator and was also named by Forbes as one of the “all-time products that changed the world” (1). The company established the Hewlett-Packard Company Foundation in 1979 (1). The company created its first personal computer in 1980, and the standard financial calculator that is still used today, the HP-12C, in 1981 (1). HP began inventing the high-tech printers, such as the ThinkJet printers and the LaserJet printers, in 1984 (1). This company was the “first major computer company to introduce a precision architecture based on reduced instruction set computing (RISC)”, which took five years but made computers faster and cheaper (1). The HP DeskJet 500C made color printing affordable and accessible in 1991 (1). HP continued to improve and create new printers, as well as personal computers, that helped to make them affordable and available for people in their own homes. They created a spin-off, called Agilent Technologies, in 1999 (3). In 2001, HP created HP Services to provide things such as consulting or outsourcing. They also announced their agreement to merge with Compaq in 2001 (2). In 2004, HP introduced their line of home digital entertainment. HP also introduced things such as the recycling of ink cartridges to the industry. HP’s latest milestone was that of the wireless mouse, the HP Wi-Fi Mobile Mouse, in 2011 (1).

Hewlett-Packard Company revolutionized the digital age in so many ways. They impacted everything from computers and printers, to the way of business of an IT company. They created the world’s first desktop computer, the first hand held calculator, and many of the printers such as the LaserJet series. They continued to develop new computers that were smaller, more personal, and more affordable to the average person. They influenced the way computers were designed and created for the future. They also greatly influenced the way printers were created and distributed for the future. Overall, they have continued to improve computers and technology from the creation of the company until the present. Hewlett-Packard also funded research and development throughout its course. HP expanded globally to allow the spread of technological advances across the globe. Hewlett-Packard impacted the world of technology and computing in such a huge way. Without HP, computing and technology may have never developed the way that it did.


Works Cited:

(1) "HP Timeline." HP Interactive Timeline. Web. 03 June 2012. <http://www8.hp.com/us/en/hp-information/about-hp/history/hp-timeline/hp-timeline.html>.

(2) "News Release." HP Press Release: Hewlett-Packard and Compaq Agree to Merge, Creating $87 Billion Global Technology Leader. Web. 03 June 2012. <http://www.hp.com/hpinfo/newsroom/press/2001/010904a.html>.

(3) “Company Information.” Agilent Technologies. Web. 03 June 2012. <http://www.agilent.com/about/companyinfo/index.html?cmpid=5012>.


Wiki Entry #3: Tim Berners-Lee

Tim Berners-Lee was born on June 8, 1955 in London, England (3). He was born to two mathematician parents that worked on the Mark I computers, and also sparked his interest in mathematics and science (4). As a child, Tim loved mathematics and electronics, and enjoyed building electronic remotes for his toy trains (4). He graduated as a physics student from the Queen’s College at Oxford University in England in 1976 (3). While he was attending Oxford, he enjoyed building his own computers from household things lying around such a a calculator, a television set, or a car battery. He was banned from using the laboratory at Oxford because he used it without permission. Even though he was not allowed to use the laboratory, he continued to create his own computer languages. Once he graduated, he moved on to work as a computer programmer (4).

After graduating, Berners-Lee worked for two years at Plessey Telecommunications, which was a large telecommunications firm in Britain. While working for Plessey Telecommunications, he worked on bar code technology refinement, distributed transaction systems, and message relays (1). He then moved on to work for D.G. Nash Ltd. for two years, where he worked on typesetting software and a multi-tasking operating system (2). After finishing with D.G. Nash Ltd., he wanted to move on to work as a freelance consultant software engineer at CERN, the European particle physics laboratory in Geneva, Switzerland. (4). He created a software application that was based on the concept of “hypertext”, which he called Enrique. He created Enrique in order to link documents based on associations of single words, and created it in order organize all of the research being done at CERN that was being stored on different incompatible systems (4). After his six months at CERN ended, Berners-Lee went on to work for Image Computer Systems. At Image Computer Systems, he developed graphics, communications software, and a generic macro language. In 1984, CERN offered for Tim to come back and work on realtime systems for data acquisition and system control (4).

It was on his return to work for CERN that his work on the World Wide Web began. CERN wanted a more flexible system in order to share documents. At the time, the Internet was too complicated and time consuming to share documents through. Tim had the idea of combining the Internet with linked hypertext documents, and in March of 1989 he proposed the idea of a global hypertext project (4). He wrote the hypertext transfer protocol (HTTP) that could be used for transmitting documents over the Internet. The hypertext transfer protocol allowed for the client programs, places where the documents were stored, and communication between web servers, to be standardized (4). He also created the universal resource locator (URL) which was a system for identifying documents. Tim created the first web server that was able to store and transmit web documents, as well as the hypertext markup language that could format web documents. He created the first web browser that made it possible to view and edit an application online, and he called it the WorldWideWeb (4). He made it available at CERN in October of 1990 (4). On August 6, 1991 he opened his website which revealed all of his information on how he created the websites and servers without charging any money. He would help create links to his website and help others set up their own websites if needed. The WorldWideWeb made it possible to download software and provide access to pictures, audio, videos, and artwork, as well as link any text documents (4).

Tim Berners-Lee always wanted the web to remain an open, free thing and never accepted any offers for profit on it. He joined the Laboratory for Computer Science at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and then founded the World Wide Web Consortium. The Consortium has teams in United States, Japan, and Europe, and allows the development of web technology among different companies, and keeps the goal of the web being accessible to all people (4). He also holds a chair at MIT’s Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory (CASIL) and heads the CASIL’s Decentralized Information Group (4). He has received many awards for his work on the web such as the first Millennium Technology Prize and accepted a chair in Computer Science at the University of Southampton, England. He also wrote a book, Weaving the Web, about the birth of the web. He now lives in Lexington, Massachusetts with his wife and two children (4). Tim Berners-Lee was important to the world of the digital age because he made it possible to share documents across the WorldWideWeb. Without him, doing this would have been very complicated and time consuming. In today’s society, everyone uses the World Wide Web. The World Wide Web is used for business, school, and by people every single day. He changed our ability to communicate around the world, and made it easier for us to be able to do business with anyone around the world, without even accepting a single penny for his work. He impacted the world of computers by creating the World Wide Web, which is used every single day and is accessible to almost every single person. The world of computing and computers would not be the same without the impacts of Tim Berners-Lee.


Works Cited:

(1) "Longer Biography." Longer Bio for Tim Berners-Lee. N.p., n.d. Web. 18 June 2012. <http://www.w3.org/People/Berners-Lee/Longer.html>.

(2) "Tim Berners-Lee." Tim Berners-Lee. N.p., n.d. Web. 18 June 2012. <http://www.w3.org/People/Berners-Lee/>.

(3) "Inventor Tim Berners-Lee Biography." Inventor Tim Berners-Lee Biography. N.p., n.d. Web. 18 June 2012. <http://www.ideafinder.com/history/inventors/berners-lee.htm>.

(4) "Sir Timothy Berners-Lee Biography." -- Academy of Achievement. N.p., n.d. Web. 18 June 2012. <http://www.achievement.org/autodoc/page/ber1bio-1>.


Wiki Article: The Negative Impacts of Social Networking on Social Skills

Abstract

This article discusses the impacts that social networking sites have had on our society that have caused our social skills to decrease. The development of the computer to a personal computer that is a household item has allowed social networking sites to effect the social skills of today’s society the way that they have. Social networking has also changed and developed over time according to the wants of society. The development of social networking sites to become a prevalent part of our society, as well as an easy accessible part of our society, has allowed our social skills to become decreased as a result. It has impacted the ability to have real life interaction, the amount we spend online as opposed to engaged in society, as well as the grammar and etiquette of the conversation. Social networking sites have revolutionized digital communication, but they have also begun to decrease the social skills of today’s generation.

Introduction

The internet has taken over our society in a way that no person could have ever predicted. Social networking in particular has worked its way into the lives of people of all ages, from children all the way up to grandparents. According to one source, social networking accounts for 17% of all the time spent on the Internet (3). With all of this time being spent on the Internet, it is often wondered if our social skills are changing as a result. Social networking sites have become a topic to begin a conversation with, as well as a medium to communicate through for many children and teenagers. There was once a time when a computer was not even a household item, and there was no such thing as Facebook. There used to be a time when all of our “Friends” were people that we actually had met in person. Today, social networking sites such as Facebook and Twitter are accessible through anything from a computer to a cell phone. The Internet and social networking sites were once looked at as a positive thing for society, but is there a point when their impacts become too much? One could argue that once it begins to affect the ability to socialize, it is too much. Social networking has changed the way that we socialize with our peers and colleagues. Social networking sites have decreased our society’s interpersonal social skills through their prevalence to society and their accessibility to society.

History of Personal Computers

Before the days of Macbook Pros and Blackberrys, there was a time when a computer was only used at universities for research or for the government. The Mark I computer in 1944, as well as the ENIAC I in 1946, are examples of computers that were used at universities, for the navy, and the government. Computers becoming more personal and the Internet becoming more accessible are what made social networking sites popular in today’s society. The UNIVAC computer in 1951 was the first commercial computer (4). ARPAnet was created in 1969, which was considered the original Internet (4). In 1973, the Ethernet networking was started by Robert Metcalfe while working for Xerox (4). The personal computer started out with the Altair 8800 in January of 1975, which was considered the first personal computer. This computer was basically only purchased by hobbyists or experts because they were the only ones that could put it together. The Homebrew Computer Club helped to push the idea of the personal computer into society. The Apple I computer was then built in April of 1976, and was accessible to other people besides hobbyists and experts because it came fully assembled. This computer was discontinued, and the Apple II was introduced in June 6, 1977. The TRS-80 and Commodore PET computers were also introduced in 1977. In 1981, IBM released their IBM PC, leaving them responsible for making the term PC popular (4). In 1984, Apple Macintosh released their more affordable home computer, followed by Microsoft windows in 1985, beginning the popular “friendly war” between the two companies (4). Most recently, Apple has introduced personal laptops such as the MacBook Air in 2008 and the iPad on April 3, 2010 (5). The course of the personal computer demonstrates how far computers have come throughout history. Without computers becoming personal and a normal household item, social networking would not be able to be so prevalent in society. The development of the personal computer is one of the biggest causes to social networking becoming popular in today’s society and changing the interpersonal skills of today’s generation.

History of Social Networking Sites

Once personal computers and the Internet were developed, it opened the gateway for social networking sites to begin. Social networking sites have evolved and changed over time, just as the computer has. The first social networking site, SixDegrees.com, was launched in 1977 and was the first site that allowed the users to create a profile, as well as list their Friends, and look at other users’ Friends (6). Throughout the years between 1997 and 2001, other social networking sites began allowing users to mark Friends as well as create profiles on their sites (6). AsianAvenue, BlackPlanet, and MiGente, are a few that began allowing this (6). In 1999, LiveJournal was introduced, which allowed people to mark their Friends and follow each other’s journal entries (6). Other sites were being started around the world as well, such as Cyworld in Korea and LunarStorm in Sweden, which were similar to LiveJournal (6). Starting in 2001, sites such as Ryze.com and LinkedIn began being introduced, which had the components of a social networking site, but were geared towards business and professionality (6). In 2002, the site Friendster was created, but faded away from popularity in the United States soon after they began deleting profiles that were considered “Fakesters”, which were fake profiles created of fictional characters or celebrities. People in the United States began to shy away from this site, but the popularity grew in places such as the Philippines, Singapore, and Indonesia (6). Myspace was the next big social networking site that was created in Santa Monica, California in 2003 to compete with other sites such as Xanga and Friendster (6).Myspace became popular among music bands, and began to become popular among the teenage generation in 2004. Myspace differed from other sites up until this time because they allowed the users to customize their pages through the use of things such as layouts, and they also allowed minors to become members (6). Myspace was eventually purchased by News Corporation for $580 million in July of 2005, boosting the reputation of it even further (6). Other social networking sites around the world were also becoming popular during this time, such as Mixi in Japan, Grono in Poland, and Hi5 in South America (6). Facebook, which today is one of the most popular sites, started out in 2004 as a college student network only and was only open to Harvard students with e-mail addresses linked to the university. By September 2005, Facebook spread to include all other college students, high school students, business corporations, and today allows any person to become a member (6). Facebook includes features such as creating Applications, as well as privacy settings making profiles hidden from all public users (6). Today, some of the most popular websites include Facebook, a blogging social networking site called Tumblr, and Twitter. There are also many smaller sites such as aSmallWorld and BeautifulPeople (6). It is not known how many social networking sites exist today because they are constantly being created, but they have evolved to become one of the most prominent part of technology today and they will continue to impact our society.

Impacts Due to Prevalence and Accessibility

With the evolution of these social networking sites over time came the expansion of users over time, which is one reason that our interpersonal social skills are being changed. Facebook has over 901 million active users, with “50% of these users logging on in any given day”, and it is estimated that over 740 billion minutes is spent by users on Facebook within any given month (7). In September 2011, Twitter had 100 million active users, and it is predicted that they are adding 11 new accounts per second (8). There was once a time when there was no such thing as Facebook or Twitter, and now both of these sites have more active users than some countries have in population. These high numbers represent the importance of social networking sites in today’s culture and show how many people are being affected by becoming active users. With so many people being connected to these sites, it is almost impossible for our daily life to not be affected by it. As one teenager states, “With our whole social lives revolving online, some people seem to think that there is no longer a need for exceptional skills away from the World Wide Web” (1). Not only are these social networking sites leaving people with less time to interact socially, but many times the actual conversations revolve around the social networking sites (1). If there is so much time being spent on these sites to the point where real life conversations cannot separate from social networking sites, this is a sign that social skills are decreasing. Not only is proper grammar and etiquette a part of interpersonal social skills, but so is the ability to interact with people and hold a conversation. If our generation is losing the ability to interact with each other and talk about real life events outside of the cyber world, than it is proof that our social skills are decreasing. Before personal computers and the Internet existed, people had to rely on their social skills in order to communicate with others. Now people have replaced real life communication with communication through these sites, leaving their social skills unused and unable to strengthen. If these sites were not so important in society, than they would not be able to effect the society’s social skills the way they have. Not only are they important to average people using them for entertainment, but they have become important to different corporations and businesses as a way to do daily transactions and business. Due to the fact that they have exploded in society and have become one of the most prevalent ways to communicate, the social skills and daily lives of users are being impacted. Another reason why social skills are being decreased is because these sites are accessible through many different means of technology and to almost any person in society. The Internet, as well as most of these sites, are free to use and sign up for. There are almost no restrictions as to who can join these networking sites. They are available through any computer with Internet access, as well as through some cell phones and iPods. There is access to these websites from basically anywhere at anytime, and because of this, people feel less like they need to have actual social interaction, and would rather interact through the means of a social networking site. Not only does having access to these sites through many means of technology make it easier to shy away from live, personal interaction, it is actually effecting our brains and daily lives. Gary Small, a neuroscientist from the University of California-Los Angeles has found that our brains are actually being changed due to technology (2). He explains that the more time that we spend with a mental stimulus, the neural circuits that are controlling this stimulus will become stronger (2). “At the same time, if we neglect certain experiences, the circuits that control those will weaken. If we’re not having conversations or looking people in the eye-human contact skills- they will weaken,” he states about being more connected to our technology than to actual humans (2). Some experts even say that there can be such a thing as “Facebook depression” for teenagers that spend more time on social networking sites, and in turn display symptoms of depression because they feel as if their life is not as exciting as others’ on Facebook (2). The accessibility of these sites is allowing us to use them more than we normally would be able to, and in turn users are spending more time on them. When users spend more time on them, they spend less time interacting with other people in real life. Dr. Kelley Crowley points out the “lack of eye contact and terrible grammar habits” that result from using our technology more than real life interactions (9). Not only do they spend less time with other people, but they begin replacing the intimacy that would normally be received from companionship, with the Internet, our cell phones, and social networking sites, as Sherry Turkle discusses (10). Turkle would also explain that face to face communication has become less favorable because of the prevalence of technology in our lives (10). Overall, our interpersonal social skills are decreasing because they are being used less due to the availability of social networking sites in our everyday life.

Relevance to Society and Culture

The issue of the availability and prevalence of these social networking sites in our lives affecting our social skills is culturally relevant because it is impacting children and teenagers all across society. Today’s children and teenagers are the future workers and leaders. Everything that they learn in their lives today will impact what the future society is like. The critical period for learning is during childhood, and if children never learn to develop correct social skills because they are spending more time on the computer than they are interacting with people, it could be hard to develop them later on in life. With less people developing the correct social skills, there will be less people to fulfill the jobs and positions that require these social skills. Our standards for society will have to be lowered if there are few people who obtain the correct social skills to have a competent conversation. The quality of the future society could be held in the hands of the younger generation today. The younger generation should have the ability to have interpersonal skills outside of the computer and be able to connect to people through ways besides social networking sites. The skills that today’s generation develop will get passed down to future generations, and if they are developing poor communication skills, so will the future generations. It could start a domino effect that will negatively impact the future of society. Realizing how these social networks are impacting society, as well as taking steps to distance children and teenagers from these sites, could help to stop the future of society from developing poor interpersonal skills.

Conclusion

The beginning of social networking sites started with the dawn of the personal computers. Without computers being developed and created to become a household item that could be used by the average person, social networking sites would not have been able to be developed. Social networking sites went on a long path, beginning with SixDegrees.com, and eventually developing sites such as Facebook, Twitter, and Tumblr, that are used by today’s generation. Social networking sites that were originally praised for being able to connect people across the globe, are now showing that there may also be some negative impacts associated with them. Although they have revolutionized digital communication, they have also destroyed some of our important social skills. People can have relationships with a person without ever meeting face to face, which was impossible before the times of the Internet and social networking. Social networking exploded into society, capturing the media and the attention of many people. Social networking has changed the future of business, as well as the future of the social skills of today’s youth. Without the prevalence of social networking sites to society, as well as the accessibility through means of different technology, social networking sites would never have been able to decrease our society’s interpersonal social skills the way that they have.


Works Cited:


(1) "A Teen Speaks: Is Social Networking Damaging Our Social Skills? - SocialTimes." A Teen Speaks: Is Social Networking Damaging Our Social Skills? - SocialTimes. N.p., n.d. Web. 27 June 2012. <http://socialtimes.com/a-teen-speaks-is-social-networking-damaging-our-social-skills_b38991>.

(2) "USA TODAY." USATODAY.COM. N.p., n.d. Web. 27 June 2012. <http://yourlife.usatoday.com/mind-soul/story/2012-03-26/Technology-can-push-our-crazy-buttons-rewire-brains/53792424/1>.

(3) "Are Social Networking Sites Good for Our Society?" ProCon.org. N.p., n.d. Web. <http://socialnetworking.procon.org/>.

(4) "The History of Computers - Computer History Timeline." The History of Computers - Computer History Timeline. N.p., n.d. Web. 27 June 2012. <http://inventors.about.com/library/blcoindex.htm>.

(5) "Chronology of Personal Computers (2008-2012)." Chronology of Personal Computers (2008-2012). N.p., n.d. Web. 27 June 2012. <http://www.islandnet.com/~kpolsson/comphist/comp2008.htm>.

(6) Boyd, D. M. and Ellison, N. B. (2007), Social Network Sites: Definition, History, and Scholarship. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 13: 210–230. doi: 10.1111/j.1083-6101.2007.00393.x. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1083-6101.2007.00393.x/full

(7) How Many Are There. N.p., n.d. Web. <http://www.howmanyarethere.org/how-many-facebook-users-are-there-2012/>.

(8) "Twitter Is Adding 11 New Accounts per Second and Could Pass 500 Million in February, Says Report." Twitter Adding 11 New Accounts Per Second. N.p., n.d. Web. 27 June 2012. <http://thenextweb.com/twitter/2012/01/16/twitter-is-adding-11-new-accounts-per-second-and-could-pass-500-million-in-february-say-report/>.

(9) "The Social Network: Is Facebook Killing Us?" HubPages. N.p., n.d. Web. 27 June 2012. <http://theredpill.hubpages.com/hub/The-Social-Network-Facebook>.

(10) "Alone Together: Why We Expect More from Technology and Less From Each Other." - Video and Audio. N.p., n.d. Web. 27 June 2012. <http://www2.lse.ac.uk/newsAndMedia/videoAndAudio/channels/publicLecturesAndEvents/player.aspx?id=1027>.